Covid-19 antibody test not to be used to evaluate immunity, says doctor
3 years, 6 months ago

Covid-19 antibody test not to be used to evaluate immunity, says doctor

Hindustan Times  

Amid the rising cases of Delta and Delta mutations of the coronavirus, the Hindustan Times spoke to Dr Ravi Shekhar Jha of Fortis Escorts hospital in Faridabad, National Capital Region, to talk about the antibodies test and how one can analyse the results by themselves. A positive antibody test result can be used to help identify people who may have had prior Covid-19 infection, antibody response after Covid-19 vaccination is still under evaluation. A: Yes, the level of antibodies can be measured, but, at this time, it is not recommended to measure the level of SARS-CoV-2 antibody tests as an indication of a specific level of immunity or protection from SARS-CoV-2 infection after the person has received a Covid-19 vaccination. A: Vaccination may cause a positive antibody test result for some but not all antibody tests would give similar results. Therefore, Covid-19 vaccinated people who have not had previous natural infection will receive a negative antibody test result if the antibody test does not detect those antibodies which are induced by the specific Covid-19 vaccine.

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History of this topic

Post-COVID-19 conditions change a person's immunological response: Study
1 year, 8 months ago

Post-COVID-19 conditions change a person's immunological response: Study

Hindustan Times  

A recent study from Cedars-Sinai's Smidt Heart Institute reveals that extended COVID-19 may be caused by a dysfunction of the immune system. The study, published in BMC Infectious Diseases, found that after people with long COVID-19 received the COVID-19 vaccine, they produced antibodies against the virus that causes COVID-19 for months longer than expected. To study the immune response of …

Covid-19 vaccine protects patients with blood cancer: Study
2 years ago

Covid-19 vaccine protects patients with blood cancer: Study

Hindustan Times  

People with blood cancer usually have a weak immune system, putting them at an increased risk of becoming very ill from Covid-19. Covid-19 vaccine protects patients with blood cancer: Study A team led by physicians Dr. Andrea Keppler-Hafkemeyer and Dr. Christine Greil from the Medical Center-University of Freiburgand virologist Prof. Oliver T. Keppler from LMU Munich has now characterized in …

Quality of antibodies improves for months after COVID-19 vaccination: Study
2 years, 10 months ago

Quality of antibodies improves for months after COVID-19 vaccination: Study

Deccan Chronicle  

Washington: Antibodies produced by immune cells become steadily more formidable and precisely targeted against the SARS-CoV-2 virus for at least six months after COVID-19 vaccination, according to a study. "If the virus did not change, most people who got two doses of this vaccine would be in very good shape," said senior study author Ali Ellebedy, an associate professor at …

COVID-19 vaccine booster provides effective antibody protection against Omicron, says Lancet study
2 years, 11 months ago

COVID-19 vaccine booster provides effective antibody protection against Omicron, says Lancet study

Firstpost  

COVID-19 Vaccine Booster | The study found that in people who had received the Pfizer vaccine for all three doses, antibody levels against Omicron after a third dose were similar to those previously reached against Delta after only two shots. London: A third dose of COVID-19 vaccine increases the level of antibodies that can effectively neutralise the Omicron variant of …

Covid vaccinated people with prior infection may have more antibodies: Study
3 years, 2 months ago

Covid vaccinated people with prior infection may have more antibodies: Study

Deccan Chronicle  

Washington: Antibody levels against SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, stay more durable in people who were infected by the disease and then received two doses of vaccine compared with those who only got immunised, according to a study. After adjusting for vaccine type, age and sex, antibody levels were compared for those with and without prior SARS-CoV-2 infection at …

Antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 virus found in 73.5% of Odisha’s population, says survey
3 years, 3 months ago

Antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 virus found in 73.5% of Odisha’s population, says survey

The Hindu  

A sero-survey conducted jointly by Regional Medical Research Centre, Bhubaneswar, and State Health and Family Welfare Department has found the community’s SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence at 73.5% in Odisha. Of the 5,796 samples taken up for survey, 4,247 were found to have antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 virus. “The seroprevalence was found to be around 70% in 6-10 year age group, for 11-18 years …

Antibody Tests Should Not Be Your Go-To For Checking COVID Immunity
3 years, 4 months ago

Antibody Tests Should Not Be Your Go-To For Checking COVID Immunity

NPR  

Antibody Tests Should Not Be Your Go-To For Checking COVID Immunity Enlarge this image toggle caption Naveen Sharma/SOPA Images/LightRocket via Getty Naveen Sharma/SOPA Images/LightRocket via Getty Booster shots against the coronavirus have already started rolling out in the U.S. for some people and millions more could be due for them soon. Sponsor Message Unlike other COVID-19 tests that are used …

What Is Antibody Test And How Does It Help In Fight Against Covid-19?
3 years, 4 months ago

What Is Antibody Test And How Does It Help In Fight Against Covid-19?

ABP News  

New Delhi: A variety of tests are available in the pathology labs to detect the presence of the Covid-19 virus in humans. While RT-PCR, TrueNAT, and Rapid Antigen Test detect the infection in the human body, there is a separate test that can be is conducted to determine if an individual has had a past infection with the virus that …

Two-thirds of Indians have antibodies, shows ICMR survey - The Hindu
3 years, 5 months ago

Two-thirds of Indians have antibodies, shows ICMR survey - The Hindu

The Hindu  

While two-thirds of the general population had SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, a third does not have antibodies, making approximately 40 crore people still vulnerable to infections, Indian Council of Medical Research Director General Balram Bhargava said on Tuesday. Presenting the results of the fourth national COVID serosurvey, Dr. Bhargava said States, districts and areas without antibodies run the risk of infection waves. …

Two-thirds of Indians Have Covid Antibodies, Another 40 Crore Still Vulnerable to Infection: Govt
3 years, 5 months ago

Two-thirds of Indians Have Covid Antibodies, Another 40 Crore Still Vulnerable to Infection: Govt

News 18  

Around 40 crore people are still vulnerable to COVID-19 infection as a nationwide survey found two-thirds of the country’s population aged above six to have SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, the government said on Tuesday as it stressed there is no room for complacency in the fight against the pandemic. Addressing a press conference, a senior official said two-thirds or 67.6 per cent …

40 cr Indians still vulnerable to Covid-19; 67% have antibodies, finds 4th Serosurvey
3 years, 5 months ago

40 cr Indians still vulnerable to Covid-19; 67% have antibodies, finds 4th Serosurvey

Live Mint  

While releasing findings of the fourth national serosurvey, the Union Health Ministry today said that nearly two-thirds of the population in the country aged above six has developed antibodies against coronavirus, while 40 crore people are still vulnerable to the disease. "67.6% of India's population above 6 years found to have SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in ICMR's latest national serosurvey in June-July," …

Covid-19 Antibodies Last at Least Nine Months After Infection, Study Finds
3 years, 5 months ago

Covid-19 Antibodies Last at Least Nine Months After Infection, Study Finds

News 18  

Antibody levels remain high nine months after infection with SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes Covid-19, whether symptomatic or asymptomatic, according to a study published on Monday that analysed data from an entire Italian town. The study, published in the journal Nature Communications, found that 98.8 per cent of people infected in February and March showed detectable levels of antibodies in …

Here's How to Measure Immunity Against COVID-19
3 years, 6 months ago

Here's How to Measure Immunity Against COVID-19

News 18  

According to medical experts, the production of antibodies — microscopic protein components –are used to measure immunity against any virus. This means that when someone is infected, their body produces antibodies which attacks the virus by fighting the infection and protects us from getting that infection in the future. Dr Bruce Walker, an immunology expert from Harvard Medical School, told …

COVID-19 vaccines ARE effective in cancer patients
3 years, 6 months ago

COVID-19 vaccines ARE effective in cancer patients

Daily Mail  

Cancer patients do develop COVID-19 antibodies after being fully vaccinated, a new study suggests. Pictured: Acancer patient receives her vaccine while others talk and laugh in an oncology unit at James Graham Brown Cancer Center in Louisville, Kentucky, April 2021 Cancer patients taking stem cell treatments and other therapies had lower antibody responses, but still saw definite immune system buildup …

Body produces antibodies against COVID-19 for months even after a mild infection: Study
3 years, 7 months ago

Body produces antibodies against COVID-19 for months even after a mild infection: Study

Firstpost  

In the bone marrow, these cells continually secrete low levels of antibodies into the bloodstream to help guard against the virus. It’s normal for antibody levels to go down after acute infection, but they don’t go down to zero; they plateau.” The researchers found antibody-producing cells in people 11 months after first symptoms. In the bone marrow, these cells continually …

You can get Covid-19 even after getting two doses of vaccine. But there is no need to panic
3 years, 8 months ago

You can get Covid-19 even after getting two doses of vaccine. But there is no need to panic

India Today  

As India scales up its Covid-19 vaccination drive, there have been reports of people testing positive for the virus even after being administered both doses of a vaccine. Firstly, it must be remembered that no vaccine is 100 per cent effective and all types of vaccines have a small chance of causing breakthrough infections, Dr Anjan Bhattacharya, Apollo Hospital, told …

Explained: Difference Between Antibody and RT-PCR Tests & How to Read Covid-19 Reports
3 years, 8 months ago

Explained: Difference Between Antibody and RT-PCR Tests & How to Read Covid-19 Reports

News 18  

While most symptoms of Covid-19 resemble that of a common cold or flu, a test helps to determine if at all it is coronavirus or some other viral infection. Also known as serology test, this procedure is done to determine if you have been infected with coronavirus in the past by detecting covid-19 antibodies in your blood. “Antibody tests should …

The Hindu Explains | Can people test positive for COVID-19 even after inoculation?
3 years, 8 months ago

The Hindu Explains | Can people test positive for COVID-19 even after inoculation?

The Hindu  

The story so far: The Indian Council of Medical Research has reported that around two to four of 10,000 people given two doses of the COVID-19 vaccine have tested positive for the disease. Coronavirus | Vaccines aimed at curbing severe COVID-19: experts Results from the Pfizer phase 3 trial showed that of the 21,720 who got the second dose of …

Vaccinated Indian national among 20 new Covid-19 cases reported in Singapore
3 years, 8 months ago

Vaccinated Indian national among 20 new Covid-19 cases reported in Singapore

Live Mint  

A 23-year-old Indian national with a work permit who had received both doses of Covid-19 vaccine was the sole locally transmitted case among 20 infections confirmed on Sunday. The Indian, who worked as a lashing specialist, was detected as Covid-19 positive through pooled rostered routine testing on April 7, according to a news report. "Our existing key enablers -- safe …

45% people have antibodies, 55% vulnerable in Jharkhand: Sero survey
3 years, 9 months ago

45% people have antibodies, 55% vulnerable in Jharkhand: Sero survey

Hindustan Times  

A sero survey conducted in Jharkhand’s 10 districts has revealed that 45% of the over three crore population in the state has already been infected with Sars-Cov-2 virus that causes Covid-19 and developed antibodies. Jharkhand had conducted the sero survey between February 4-26 in 10 districts namely Bokaro, Dhanbad, Dumka, East Singhbhum, Garhwa, Hazaribag, Khunti, Palamu, Ranchi and West Singhbhum. …

Covid-19 antibodies may protect against reinfection later, study suggests
3 years, 10 months ago

Covid-19 antibodies may protect against reinfection later, study suggests

CNN  

CNN — There’s new evidence that connects testing positive for Covid-19 antibodies from a prior infection with a significantly lower risk of becoming infected again in the future. A study, published in the journal JAMA Internal Medicine on Wednesday, found that people who tested positive for Covid-19 antibodies were at a decreased risk of coronavirus infection compared with those who …

Some people test positive after getting a Covid-19 vaccine. Here’s why.
3 years, 11 months ago

Some people test positive after getting a Covid-19 vaccine. Here’s why.

CNN  

CNN — A Covid-19 vaccine does not provide full or immediate protection, which means it’s still possible to get infected and test positive for the virus.Democratic Rep. Stephen Lynch of Massachusetts did. The first dose may provide some protection, but as the Moderna CEO, Stephane Bancel said Monday “but we really just don’t have any data to prove that at …

Immunity induced by COVID-19 vaccine expected to protect against new variants: Moderna
4 years ago

Immunity induced by COVID-19 vaccine expected to protect against new variants: Moderna

India TV News  

Moderna Inc on Wednesday said that it expects that the immunity induced by its COVID-19 vaccine would be protective against the new coronavirus variants found in the United Kingdom. A press release issued by the vaccine company reads, "While we plan to run tests to confirm the activity of the vaccine against any strain, the broad range of potential neutralizing …

Studies find having COVID-19 may protect against reinfection
4 years ago

Studies find having COVID-19 may protect against reinfection

The Independent  

For free real time breaking news alerts sent straight to your inbox sign up to our breaking news emails Sign up to our free breaking news emails Please enter a valid email address Please enter a valid email address SIGN UP I would like to be emailed about offers, events and updates from The Independent. on the order of the …

Studies find having COVID-19 may protect against reinfection
4 years ago

Studies find having COVID-19 may protect against reinfection

Associated Press  

Two new studies give encouraging evidence that having COVID-19 may offer some protection against future infections. on the order of the same kind of protection you’d get from an effective vaccine,” of getting the virus again, said Dr. Ned Sharpless, director of the U.S. National Cancer Institute. Among the 1,265 who had coronavirus antibodies at the outset, only two had …

Covid-19 Antibodies May Provide Immunity for At least 5 Months, Finds New Study
4 years, 2 months ago

Covid-19 Antibodies May Provide Immunity for At least 5 Months, Finds New Study

News 18  

While some reports have come out saying antibodies to coronavirus go away quickly, a new study has revealed that the vast majority of individuals infected with mild-to-moderate Covid-19 mount a robust antibody response that is relatively stable for at least five months. The study, published in the journal Science, found that this antibody response correlates with the body’s ability to …

Indian researcher in US finds immunity against Covid-19 lasts over 5 months
4 years, 2 months ago

Indian researcher in US finds immunity against Covid-19 lasts over 5 months

India Today  

After studying antibody samples collected from 6,000 people infected with coronavirus, researchers in the United States have concluded that immunity against Covid-19 lasts for at least five months. "We clearly see high-quality antibodies still being produced five to seven months after SARS-CoV-2 infection," said professor Deepta Bhattacharya. They found that SARS-CoV-2 antibodies are present in blood tests at viable levels …

7.6% Exposed to Coronavirus in Chandigarh, Finds Sero Survey by PGIMER
4 years, 3 months ago

7.6% Exposed to Coronavirus in Chandigarh, Finds Sero Survey by PGIMER

News 18  

The preliminary data of the sero survey conducted by the PGIMER to detect the prevalence of Covid-19 in Chandigarh has shown that 7.6 per cent of the tested samples had antibodies against the virus, it was announced on Saturday. PGIMER Director Jagat Ram said, “We are at a very preliminary stage of the study which is aimed at identifying the …

Sero-survey Conducted in August Finds No Antibodies in 30 Percent of Recovered Covid-19 Patients
4 years, 3 months ago

Sero-survey Conducted in August Finds No Antibodies in 30 Percent of Recovered Covid-19 Patients

News 18  

A sero-prevalance survey conducted in the first week of August in Delhi has found that 79 of the 257 people who recovered from Covid-19 did not have antibodies against the virus. Antibodies against Covid-19 infection were found in 29.1 per cent of people in the August sero-prevalence survey in the national capital, Delhi Health Minister Satyendar Jain had said late …

Antibodies indicates previous exposure, may not guarantee protection against COVID-19, say scientists
4 years, 4 months ago

Antibodies indicates previous exposure, may not guarantee protection against COVID-19, say scientists

Firstpost  

Though a number of studies have been conducted, information as to the type and level of antibodies is limited, scientists said New Delhi: The presence of antibodies indicates previous exposure to the SARS-CoV-2 virus but may not always translate into protection against the disease, say scientists, citing imponderables such as what kind of antibodies, how many and how long they …

Antibodies may not guarantee COVID-19 protection, say scientists
4 years, 4 months ago

Antibodies may not guarantee COVID-19 protection, say scientists

India TV News  

The presence of antibodies indicates previous exposure to the SARS-CoV-2 virus but may not always translate into protection against the disease, say scientists, citing imponderables such as what kind of antibodies, how many and how long they last. “Simple presence of antibodies is a clear indication of previous exposure to SARS-CoV2 but does not necessarily guarantee protection from the disease …

Presence of Covid antibodies no guarantee for protection from infection: Scientists
4 years, 4 months ago

Presence of Covid antibodies no guarantee for protection from infection: Scientists

India Today  

With more and more states relying on sero-surveillance and antigen testing to trace the spread of coronavirus in their regions, scientists have warned that while the presence of Covid antibodies may prove exposure to the virus, it does not necessarily provide protection against the disease. “Simple presence of antibodies is a clear indication of previous exposure to SARS-CoV2 but does …

Children can have both Covid-19 antibodies, virus in their system simultaneously
4 years, 4 months ago

Children can have both Covid-19 antibodies, virus in their system simultaneously

Hindustan Times  

Children may still have the potential to transmit the novel coronavirus even if they have a measurable immune response, according to a new study which says the virus and antibodies can coexist in young patients. The study, published in the Journal of Pediatrics, used a retrospective analysis of 6,369 children tested for the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, and 215 patients who …

Dengue virus tests may sometimes return ‘positive’ for coronavirus, says study
4 years, 4 months ago

Dengue virus tests may sometimes return ‘positive’ for coronavirus, says study

The Hindu  

Can dengue be sometimes mistaken for COVID-19? Two independent research studies — one from a group in Israel and another from the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology in Kolkata — show that tests specific to check for dengue sometimes led to a positive SARS-CoV-2 test and this, the scientists warn, could lead to misdiagnoses and …

COVID-19 antibodies fade rapidly in mild cases, raise risk of lost immunity: Report
4 years, 5 months ago

COVID-19 antibodies fade rapidly in mild cases, raise risk of lost immunity: Report

India TV News  

In people with mild cases of COVID-19, antibodies against the novel coronavirus may drop sharply over the first three months after infection, according to a research which says the levels may decrease by roughly half every 73 days. According to the scientists, the current research, published in the New England Journal of Medicine, is the first to carefully estimate the …

COVID-19 Immunity: Lancet study suggests herd immunity may not be possible, antibodies found only in 5% of test population in Spain
4 years, 6 months ago

COVID-19 Immunity: Lancet study suggests herd immunity may not be possible, antibodies found only in 5% of test population in Spain

Firstpost  

Herd immunity of importance as for the pandemic to be over, enough people in a community have to develop immunity against the coronavirus either after getting the disease or through vaccination Herd immunity is a term that most of us have become acquainted with during the coronavirus pandemic. Now, a population-based seroepidemiological study done in Spain, indicates that only 5 …

COVID-19 immunity: Studies show antibodies against novel coronavirus may last only for two-six months
4 years, 6 months ago

COVID-19 immunity: Studies show antibodies against novel coronavirus may last only for two-six months

Firstpost  

Nearly 8.5 million people have been reported to be COVID-19 positive in the world and over 456,000 have died of the disease within the past six months. Nearly 8.5 million people have been reported to be COVID-19 positive in the world and over 4,56,000 have died of the disease within the past six months. Asymptomatic people show a decline in …

Antibodies from recovered COVID-19 patients show powerful protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection
4 years, 6 months ago

Antibodies from recovered COVID-19 patients show powerful protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection

Firstpost  

Scientists have long suspected that antibodies in the blood of COVID-19 patients that have successfully fought the infection and recovered could provide powerful protection against SARS-CoV-2 – the coronavirus that causes COVID-19. “The discovery of these very potent antibodies represents an extremely rapid response to a totally new pathogen,” co-senior author Dennis Burton, the James and Jessie Minor Chair in …

ICMR recommends use of faster COVID-19 testing kit
4 years, 6 months ago

ICMR recommends use of faster COVID-19 testing kit

The Hindu  

The Indian Council of Medical Research has recommended the use of Standard Q COVID-19 Ag antigen detection test in containment zones and healthcare settings in combination with the RT-PCR test. Read | Urban slum population most vulnerable to COVID-19 spread: ICMR “A positive test in antigen, result of which is available in 30 minutes, should be considered as a true …

Antibody tests for Covid-19 wrong half the time, CDC says
4 years, 7 months ago

Antibody tests for Covid-19 wrong half the time, CDC says

CNN  

CNN — Antibody tests used to determine if people have been infected in the past with Covid-19 might be wrong up to half the time, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention said in new guidance posted on its website. “Serologic test results should not be used to make decisions about returning persons to the workplace.” Health officials or …

What can a COVID-19 antibody test tell me?
4 years, 7 months ago

What can a COVID-19 antibody test tell me?

Associated Press  

What can a COVID-19 antibody test tell me? An antibody test might show if you had COVID-19 in the recent past, which most experts think gives people some protection from the virus. Dozens of companies are making rapid antibody tests to help identify people who had the virus and may have developed some immunity to it. The U.S. Food and …

ICMR issues guidance on rapid antibody test kits for COVID-19, lists manufacturers
4 years, 7 months ago

ICMR issues guidance on rapid antibody test kits for COVID-19, lists manufacturers

The Hindu  

The ICMR on Wednesday issued guidance on rapid antibody test kits for COVID-19 and listed their manufacturers, which include two Chinese firms whose importer licenses were cancelled by the CDSCO after kits supplied by them showed wide-variation under field conditions. Interactive map of confirmed coronavirus cases in India | State-wise tracker for coronavirus cases, deaths and testing rates The apex …

Everything We Know About Covid-19 Antibody Tests (So Far)
4 years, 8 months ago

Everything We Know About Covid-19 Antibody Tests (So Far)

Wired  

Antibody tests are big news right now. Many people consider these blood tests key to "reopening the economy" and easing back on social distancing, sending us back to work and to some semblance of a normal social life again. The problem is that, despite the rush to make them quickly available in huge numbers to people in all places, it’s …

COVID-19: What are the different types of tests?
4 years, 8 months ago

COVID-19: What are the different types of tests?

The Hindu  

Different methods of testing are being experimented in the country to trace COVID-19 infection. The Health Ministry has announced that the real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction or RT-PCR is the ‘gold standard’ frontline test for COVID-19. Anti-body tests also known as serological tests, are used to find out the presence of virus in a body. COVID-19 | Interactive map of …

Does having COVID-19 antibodies mean that you are immune to the disease?
4 years, 8 months ago

Does having COVID-19 antibodies mean that you are immune to the disease?

Firstpost  

If a person has COVID-19 antibodies in their body, it means their immune system fought the infection without causing any trouble to the person. However, according to Dr Maria Van Kerkhove, World Health Organization, there is not enough evidence yet to prove if a person who has recovered from COVID-19 infection is protected from reinfection or not. Since then, doctors …

Coronavirus antibody tests are still a work in progress
4 years, 8 months ago

Coronavirus antibody tests are still a work in progress

LA Times  

After hearing for months about serious access issues involving tests that diagnose COVID-19 based on swabs from the nose or throat, Americans are being inundated with reports about promising new tests that look for signs of coronavirus infection in the blood. “You may even miss some infected people completely.” Other tests may flag people as positive for COVID-19 when they’re …

WHO says no evidence of Covid-19 immunity from antibodies
4 years, 8 months ago

WHO says no evidence of Covid-19 immunity from antibodies

CNN  

CNN — The World Health Organization is warning that people who have had Covid-19 are not necessarily immune by the presence of antibodies from getting the virus again. “There is no evidence yet that people who have had Covid-19 will not get a second infection,” WHO said in a scientific brief published Friday. “At this point in the pandemic, there …

Can you get coronavirus twice? What we know so far about COVID-19 and immunity
4 years, 8 months ago

Can you get coronavirus twice? What we know so far about COVID-19 and immunity

ABC  

Your immune system is like your own personal army: a vast network of cells, tissues and organs that coordinate your body's defences against illness and disease. The first line of defence is what's known as the innate immune response, which is effectively "an amping up" of the immune system, said Dr Labzin. What we know about COVID-19 immunity Infection with …

ICMR recommends antibody test for speedy detection of COVID-19 cases
4 years, 9 months ago

ICMR recommends antibody test for speedy detection of COVID-19 cases

The Hindu  

To ensure speedy detection of coronavirus cases, those residing in COVID-19 hotspots or areas which have reported large numbers of cases may have to undergo a rapid antibody blood test for the viral infection. The Indian Council of Medical Research in its interim advisory has recommended the use of the rapid antibody test in the country’s coronavirus hotspots. “Population in …

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